Multidisciplinary Journal Epistemology of the Sciences

Volume 3, Issue 1, 2026, January–March

DOI: https://doi.org/10.71112/0b2eee40

sólidos en suspensión y análisis bajo SEM/PLS-SEM

structured interviews (n=5). The bench integrates traceable references, TSS/turbidity

monitoring, and controlled particle dosing to replicate real network conditions. Quantitative

results show that perceived reliability, cost reduction, time efficiency, regulatory traceability, and

environmental sustainability significantly predict adoption intentions among utilities, suppliers,

and industrial users. Qualitative interviews corroborate demand for formal reporting, certification

readiness, and framework agreements. Conceptually, we operationalize metrological capability

as a microfoundation of dynamic capabilities—sensing, seizing, and reconfiguring—linking

measurement infrastructure to organizational resilience, innovative, learning, and competitive

positioning.

un banco de calibración de alta fidelidad para sólidos en suspensión en medidores de ½″–1″ y

evalúa su aceptación e impacto mediante un diseño secuencial de métodos mixtos y SEM/PLS-

SEM. El método combinó una encuesta (n=135) con entrevistas semiestructuradas (n=5). El

banco integra referencias trazables, monitoreo de SST/turbidez y dosificación controlada de

partículas para replicar condiciones reales de red. Los resultados cuantitativos muestran que la

confiabilidad percibida, la reducción de costos, la eficiencia en tiempos, la trazabilidad

regulatoria y la sostenibilidad ambiental predicen significativamente las intenciones de adopción

entre empresas de servicios públicos, proveedores e industrias. Las entrevistas cualitativas

corroboran la demanda de informes formales, preparación para certificación y acuerdos marco.

Conceptualmente, se operacionalizó la capacidad metrológica como una microfundación de las

capacidades dinámicas —detectar, aprovechar y reconfigurar— vinculando la infraestructura de

medición con la resiliencia organizacional, la innovación, el aprendizaje y el posicionamiento

competitivo.

Palabras clave: capacidades dinámicas; sólidos en suspensión; homologación de medidores

de agua; capacidad metrológica; ecuaciones estructurales-SEM

Received: 26 November 2025 | Accepted: 3 March 2026 | Published: 4 March 2026

INTRODUCTION

Flow measurement in drinking water systems is essential for sustainability, fair billing,

heterogeneous flow conditions that affect each meter technology differently: mechanical meters

suffer abrasion and clogging, ultrasonic devices face signal scattering and attenuation, and

electromagnetic meters encounter conductivity variations. Despite its significance, global

literature on test benches for suspended solids is fragmented, with prototypes in Mexico, “slug”

tests in the U.S., agricultural studies in China, and impurity-sensitivity analyses in Europe. None

provide a standardized, reproducible solution aligned with real network conditions.

This gap translates into operational and strategic risks: utilities and industries acquire

meters without empirical validation, leading to premature failures, higher costs, and disputes,

while suppliers lack independent evidence for homologation under sediment exposure. The

absence of high-fidelity benches also constrains innovation, as predictive models of meter

performance cannot be reliably developed. The problem is especially critical in Latin America,

where sediments are recurrent and utilities face growing demands for efficiency and

transparency.

In response, the Metrology Laboratory of Aguas de Cartagena S.A. developed an

innovative suspended-solids calibration bench that integrates traceable references, advanced

instrumentation, and controlled suspension systems to replicate real network conditions. This

study evaluates its acceptance and impact through SEM/PLS-SEM, linking perceived reliability,

cost reduction, efficiency, traceability, and sustainability with adoption intentions. Conceptually,

it frames metrological capability as a microfoundation of dynamic capabilities—sensing, seizing,

and reconfiguring—positioning measurement infrastructure as both a technical solution and a

Flow measurement in drinking water networks constitutes a fundamental pillar for the

efficient management of water resources, fair billing, and the reliability of hydraulic

infrastructure. In particular, small-diameter meters (½” to 1”) are the most common in domestic

applications, and therefore have been the subject of multiple studies on their behavior under

non-ideal operating conditions (International Organization for Standardization, 2014). However,

a critical factor affecting their accuracy is the presence of suspended solids, which can induce

phenomena such as abrasion, partial obstruction, or biases in the measurement signal,

depending on the meter technology (Bonola-Alonso et al., 2011).

International standards ISO 4064 and OIML R 49 establish the metrological and technical

requirements for drinking water meters, including conditions of accuracy and repeatability under

The transport of solid particles in a liquid flow is governed by the interaction of

gravitational, drag, and turbulence forces. For small-diameter particles (<100 μm),

sedimentation can be modeled using Stokes’ law, whereas for larger particles it is necessary to

apply correlations such as Schiller–Naumann (Crowe, Sommerfeld & Tsuji, 1998). Factors such

as mean particle size (d50), the relative density of solids with respect to water, and flow velocity

meters (e.g. multi-jet, oscillating piston, turbine) are susceptible to bearing abrasion, clogging of

moving parts, and increases in head loss (Bonola-Alonso et al., 2011). Ultrasonic meters, on the

other hand, face problems of dispersion and attenuation of the acoustic signal, which may alter

the interpretation of the velocity profile and generate biases dependent on particle concentration

and granulometry (Li & Ren, 2011).

To reproducibly evaluate these effects, it is necessary to design test benches with

recirculation and agitation systems that ensure suspension homogeneity, avoiding low-energy

zones where sedimentation may occur. The use of flow standards with metrological traceability

—such as Coriolis meters or gravimetric systems— is essential to guarantee the accuracy of the

results and to allow proper estimation of measurement uncertainty, following the guidelines of

tools to study these phenomena under controlled conditions. The integration of normative

criteria, fundamentals of two-phase fluid mechanics, and methodologies of metrological

assurance enables the development of a robust experimental framework for the homologation

and improvement of measurement technologies in real operating contexts.

The international literature specifically addressing suspended solids in test benches for

One of the most cited precedents in Ibero-America is the bench developed by Bonola-

Alonso et al., (2011), designed to subject small-diameter meters to controlled conditions of

water with sediments. The study describes the construction stages of the bench, the

experimental program, and the results: in addition to the recirculation system and particle

dosing, it demonstrates that damage and metrological bias are not limited to moving

components but also affect bearings and supports, leading to increased head loss and drift

depending on particle size. This work is a regional milestone, as it explicitly documents a liquid–

solid two-phase bench for small meters, serving as a guide for the design of mixing,

conditioning, and TSS/PSD sampling lines. Nevertheless, the bench was a low-fidelity prototype

with reproducibility limitations.

on a “slug” injection rather than prolonged regimes, the methodology of reference and cross-

comparison among technologies stands out as a good bench practice to characterize sensitivity

to particulates. In summary, the bench developed by Buck et al. (2012) was innovative in clearly

demonstrating the vulnerability of certain meters to solid particles; however, it did not reach the

level of a comprehensive system for homologation or long-term evaluation, remaining instead as

a comparative laboratory test rather than a reference bench.

China (comparative benches with water–sand in pressurized irrigation).

domestic water meter. Results showed that the electromagnetic meter maintained the best

reliability with water–sand mixtures, while the transit-time ultrasonic and the mechanical meter

exhibited higher error dispersion with increasing concentration and velocity variations. The study

highlights the importance of ensuring homogeneous suspension and critical velocities during

testing to avoid deposition (Su et al., 2021). However, its main limitation lies in its focus on the

agricultural sector, which means that its extrapolation to domestic drinking water networks

requires adjustments in flow conditions, pressures, and applicable regulations.

Europe (EMPIR/Flow Measurement infrastructure: “close-to-use” benches and

impurity sensitivity).

In Europe, metrology consortia have extended benches to replicate “real-life” conditions

testing. However, it was not established as a comprehensive reference bench, but rather as a

methodological platform aimed at the oversight of suppliers and water companies under specific

regulatory parameters.

Ultrasonic meters: evidence of attenuation and dispersion by particles.

Laboratory tests and technical notes in Europe and Italy on ultrasonic meters indicate

that suspended particles attenuate and scatter acoustic signals, reducing operating range and

the presence of solids (Ciaravino et al., 2011). Nevertheless, its scope was more focused on

exploratory laboratory tests, with limitations in terms of portability, large-scale replicability, and

linkage with formal homologation processes. In this sense, the bench developed by Ciaravino et

al. served as a solid academic precedent but did not consolidate as a reference infrastructure

broadly applicable in public services or industrial contexts.

Synthesis of bench design lessons.

Across regions, experiences converge on four main criteria: (i) homogeneous mixing and

critical velocity control to avoid deposition (agitated tanks/recirculation loops and straight

sections with “solid-compatible” conditioners); (ii) traceable references (gravimetric, Coriolis, or

weir) to separate meter error from suspension inhomogeneity; (iii) solid characterization

controlled ranges of concentration/particle size. But with the indicated limitations.

3. Thematic coding and qualitative analysis allowed the identification of perceptions,

4. This stage provided a more detailed and integrated perspective of the

RESULT

The outcomes of this study, interpreted from a constructive standpoint, stem from a

thorough examination of the data in accordance with the predefined methodology. By applying

structural equation modeling, the hypotheses were tested, uncovering significant patterns,

interrelations, and effects among the analyzed variables. This section provides an integrated

summary of the results, which includes the creation of predictive models, the assessment of

model fit indicators, and the estimation of essential parameters. Taken together, these elements

deliver a precise and comprehensive understanding of the factors examined and their relevance

within the research context.

The contrast analysis, aimed at evaluating the impact of the dependent variables—

intention to adopt, reduction of operational costs caused by failures, efficiency in calibration and

testing times offered by the suspended solids bench, traceability and regulatory compliance,

consideration.

Table 1

Note: Based on proprietary measurements analyzed using SPSS and PLS (2025)

When evaluating the structural equation model (SEM) through the PLS method, it is

essential that Q² values are greater than zero to demonstrate the existence of an endogenous

latent variable. As presented in Figure 1, the obtained Q² value was 0.496, which significantly

surpasses the minimum criterion. This result reinforces the robustness of the model and

Figure 1

Table 2

Table 3

Note: Based on proprietary measurements analyzed using SPSS and PLS (2025)

which these findings can be generalized will depend on subsequent research employing similar

Interviewees acknowledged prior familiarity with suspended solids testing and regarded

its formal incorporation into a regional and national calibration infrastructure as an important

step toward reinforcing trust in both traceability and the reliability of measurement results. Their

acceptance, however, was not limited to the suspended solids method alone: several

participants emphasized their interest in exploring the broader set of eleven homologation tests

Respondents underscored the need for transparency regarding calibration and homologation

fees, while also noting the relevance of volume-based discounts and contractual schemes

designed for recurring clients. In their view, such mechanisms would facilitate not only

affordability but also continuity in the application of these methods.

Beyond cost considerations, the interviews revealed a strong expectation for formal

certification and compliance mechanisms. For most participants, the inclusion of detailed reports

constituted a non-negotiable requirement, serving both as internal decision-making support and

as indispensable documentation for external audits. Closely tied to this expectation was the

demand for added value in the form of comprehensive technical analyses, rapid turnaround of

results, and sustained post-service support—factors described as decisive in procurement

reputational instrument.

In light of these findings, interviewees proposed the establishment of framework

agreements that would regulate annual or semi-annual calibrations and homologation tests.

Such agreements, they argued, would guarantee priority access to the laboratory while offering

more favorable financial conditions, thereby fostering stronger and longer-term partnerships with

client companies.

DISCUSSION

The results obtained in this study contribute to advancing the theoretical understanding of

flow metrology under non-ideal conditions by linking suspended solids analysis to the

technological acceptance of calibration benches. In line with the framework of dynamic

capabilities (Mendoza Betin, 2018a, 2018b, 2019a), the suspended solids test bench represents

an organizational mechanism to sense and respond to environmental contingencies —in this

case, the operational variability of drinking water networks. The study reinforces the notion that

innovation in metrological infrastructure is not only a matter of technical optimization but also a

generator of legitimacy, resilience, and adaptive capacity for public utilities and industrial actors

(Mendoza-Betin, 2021a, 2025b,c).

From a theoretical perspective, this research bridges metrology, innovation management,

scope of prior works on calibration and dimensioning of water meters (Mendoza-Betin et al.,

2024).

The practical implications are equally significant. For water utilities, suppliers, and

industrial firms, the availability of a reproducible suspended solids analysis bench translates into

especially good leadership practices and EFR standards, echoing the findings of Mendoza-Betin

(2025e, 2025f). The proposal of framework agreements, voiced in the qualitative phase,

highlights a concrete path for institutionalizing these practices and fostering long-term

partnerships between laboratories and clients.

However, limitations must be acknowledged. First, the study’s scope was geographically

bounded to Cartagena and the Colombian Caribbean region, which may restrict the

generalization of findings to other contexts with different hydraulic and regulatory conditions.

Second, the quantitative survey relied on purposive sampling, limiting the representativeness of

the population. Third, although the predictive model demonstrated robustness, future research

validity of the model. At the organizational level, cross-country analyses would test whether

innovation adoption patterns replicate under different institutional frameworks. Finally, at the

policy level, research should explore how suspended solids testing can be integrated into

regulatory regimes, procurement guidelines, and sustainability standards. These agendas align

with Mendoza-Betin (2022, 2025c, 2025e) arguments on the generative role of dynamic

capabilities in shaping both technical innovation, leadership and social legitimacy.

Aguas de Cartagena S.A. constitutes an original and innovative contribution to flow metrology,

bridging laboratory experimentation with the real conditions of drinking water networks. By

integrating quantitative and qualitative evidence, it validates that perceived reliability, cost

efficiency, time optimization, regulatory traceability, and sustainability significantly drive the

acceptance and adoption of this technology. The findings also resonate with international

precedents, such as the early prototype documented by Bonola-Alonso et al. (2011) in Mexico,

the experimental lessons reported in Asia by Su et al. (2021), and the organizational innovation

approaches framed by Mendoza Betin (2018, 2025a) in the Colombian context.

Together, these works reinforce the idea that suspended solids testing benches not only

provide technical validation but also represent strategic assets that enhance corporate

legitimacy, promote sustainability, and strengthen innovation capabilities in the water sector.